The Buddha and His Monastic Order
-Prof. Kapila Abhayawansa, Vice Rector, International Buddhist College
Abstract
It is indeed admirable that the existence of Buddhist Monastic Order for more than two and a half millenniums as the first ever human welfare organization in the world without deviating from its basic objectives. Though it flourished with traditional and geographical differences due to its propagation in various countries it exists unchanged from the original anticipation of the founder, the Buddha. Advent of the Buddha in the world according to Anguttara nikāya, is said to be for the wellbeing and happiness of many. There is no doubt that the Buddha has presented his teaching which can bring forth happiness and wellbeing of people irrespective of their manifoldness in time and space. It was the intention of the Buddha that the doctrine realized and revealed by him may reach to the maximum number of people so that many can have the benefit of it.
The Buddha established his monastic Order in order to actualize his expectation of conveying his doctrine to the maximum possible number of people. Rules and regulations were laid down by the Buddha for the Order to make it an ideal society through which expected result can be achieved. Two principle characteristics namely unity and purity were considered to be the strength of the Order. Hence, most of the rules and regulations were aimed at ensuring the unity among the members and the purity of their personal conduct. The Order was made into a institution upon which legal power was vested in order to regulate the behavior of the members in the way that it brings forth the unity and the purity. It seems that the desire of the Buddha in designing the structure of the Order was to have self-governed institution based on democratic policy where the personal supremacy was rejected. This paper is intended to deal with the attitude of the Buddha towards the members of his monastic Order and the way how the Buddha has strengthen the Order giving it the vibrancy and dynamism necessary to continue the services for humanity..
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The Buddha comes first in the history of religion who secured the honour for the establishment of the longest standing monastic Order, the Bhikkhu organization. The Order which came into being with the inclusion of five monks named as monks of the group of five (Panca-vaggiyā bhikkũ) immediately after the first sermon of the Buddha, gradually increased in number and was able to exist even today in different countries in the world for over two thousand six hundred years. Not long before its conception, it became popular among the people of Magadha and achieved rapid development in numbers causing a fair number of parents of Magadha to blame the Buddha calling him a destroyer of families and accusing him of making widows, out of their young daughters.[1]
It seems that the intention of the Buddha to have an Order as the inner cycle of his religion is of two kinds. That is to intensify the spiritual progress of the members and to make the members worthy of conveying his message to the world. The order is consisted of the members who have given up their household life. As it is taught, “hard is the holy life which is fully perfected and purified for a householder who is living at home”.[2] Regarding the renunciation of household life of the Buddhist Order, observes Prof. Jotiya Dhirasekera:
“It is abundantly clear that early Buddhism with its spiritual earnestness considered Pubbajja or the life renunciation as the ideal religious life. The life of the monk is a stage beyond that of a laymen, and the passage from lay life to recluse-ship is always looked upon as an advance, a step forward in spiritual progress”[3]
The Buddha as the spiritual leader of the Order constantly gave the instruction and advice to its members encouraging them to achieve the desired goal in this very life. Speaking on the Buddha’s dedication to the requirements of the disciples, Prof. Malalasekera points out:
“The Buddha was extremely devoted to his disciples and encouraged them in every way in their difficult life. The Theragatha and Therigatha are full of stories indicating that he watched, with great care, the spiritual growth and development of his disciples, understood their problems and was ready with timely interference to help them to win their aims”[4]
In addition to the disciple’s spiritual fulfillment, other expectation of the Buddha as mentioned earlier; was to build up the Order in a firm ground in the way that it can be stable for a long time in the world for the benefit of the mankind. This idea was brought forward by the Buddha in the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta where it is said that the Buddha, not long after his enlightenment, told Mara that he would not pass away into parinibbāna until his fourfold assembly is well and firmly established[5]. However, it is evident that the Buddha was able to bring these two purposes into realities in his life time. How the Buddha was successful in this regard is evident from the fact that, as Peter Harvey points out, ‘no other human institution has had such a long-lasting existence, along with such a wide diffusion, as the Buddhist Sangha’.[6] The Buddha himself admitted in the Pāsādika-sutta that his fourfold assembly is already firmed enough to exist for a long time. This fact was revealed by the Buddha to venerable Cunda in the following way:
“However, there are senior teachers among the monks, who are experienced, trained, skilled, who have attained peace from bondage, able to proclaim the true Dhamma, able to refute by means of the Dhamma any opposing doctrines that may arise and, having done so, give a grounded exposition of Dhamma. And there are middle ranking-monks who are disciplined and experienced, there are novices who are disciples, there are senior, middle ranking and novice nuns who are disciples, there are white-robed lay followers, male and female, celibate and non-celibate, and the holy life I proclaim prosperous and flourishes, is widespread, widely-known, proclaimed far and wide, well proclaimed among humans”.[7]
The Buddha expected nothing personal from the Order except the unity and the purity of its members through which the well-being of the Order could be established. He promulgated a code of disciplinary rules to regulate the life of the monks seeking mainly purity, well-being and convenience of the Sangha and the stability and continuance of the Dhamma.[8]
In order to maintain the purity and the unity among the members of the Order, the Buddha approved certain rites and rituals to be performed with the participation of all the members of a group, sometimes fortnightly (e.g. Uposatha or pātimokkha recitation) and some times, annually (e.g. Pavārana). Unity and integrity of the Order was a must to bring the expectation of the Buddha into reality. Therefore, it seems that the Buddha was equally concerned about both purity and the unity of the monks.
Democratic administration
The Buddha was democratic in his attitude towards the Order. He never acted as a dictator expecting monks to be under his control. It was never the Buddha’s desire, as Prof. Dhirasekera observed, ‘to exercise too much personal control over the Sangha by himself’.[9]In his last moment the Buddha revealed to venerable Ānanda that ‘the Tathāgata does not think that ‘I shall take charge of the order or Order should refer to me’.[10] It is expressed by the Buddha himself that even he did not teach his doctrine with the intention of getting the disciples. In the Udumbarika-sihanāda-sutta, the Buddha made it clear to wanderer Nigrodha in the following way:
“Nigrodha, you may think: ‘The ascetic Gotama says this in order to get disciples.’ But you should not regard it like that.”[11]
Though the Buddha did not have such an idea, it was the sincere feeling of the monks that the Buddha was their religious leader. The venerable Assaji, when he was questioned by wanderer Upatissa (Sāriputta) told him that he has gone forth referring to the Buddha and the Buddha is his master. (tāham bhagavantam uddissa pabbajito so ca me bhagavā satthā-Vin.11.40). In the Bhayabherave-sutta, the Brahamin Jānussoni is reported to have said the Buddha that the householders have gone forth into homelessness out of faith in the Buddha, of those the Buddha is the leader, to those the Buddha is of great service, of those the Buddha is the adviser and those people emulate the views of the Buddha.[12]
As the Buddha was a religious master who showed the spiritual path to his disciples, they were naturally persuaded by their faith to consider him as their leader (pubbangamo). Most of the people entered into the order because of the faith in the Buddha (saddhāya agārasmā anagāriyam pabbajitvā) during the life time of the Buddha. Therefore, they inclined to think that not only the Buddha as their leader but also the doctrine that they were following as rooted in the Buddha. When the disciples wanted something to get to be clarified by the Buddha, the following is the usual way of expressing their requirement:
“Venerable sir, our teachings are rooted in the Blessed One, guided by the Blessed One, take recourse in the Blessed One. It would be good if the Blessed One would clear up the meaning of this statement. Having heard it from him, bhikkhus will remember it”.[13]
Whatever has been done by the Buddha for the well-being of the Order has been done not as the ruler but as the teacher seeking the welfare of his disciple (satthārā sāvakānam hitesinā anukampakena-M.1.118). The Buddha always gave the priority to the requirements of the disciples. He never thought of himself. Once, venerable Meghiya who was the personal attendant to the Buddha at that time was at Calika with the Buddha. Before noon he wandered about for alms and returned there from and finished his meal, he came to the bank of the Kimikāla River. There he saw a mango grove, pleasing and beautiful; and at the sight, he thought to go and strive there in the mango grove. Then he returned to the Buddha to get the permission to go there. The Buddha interrupted him saying: “Stay while, Meghiya, till some other monk appear, for we are alone.” But Meghiya, however, wanted to go there and then he told the Buddha:
“Lord, for the exalted One there is nothing further to be done; there is no adding to his accomplishments. But for me, lord, there is more to be done; to what is done, there is more to be added. If the Exalted One permits me, I will go to that mango grove and strive.”
The Buddha prevented him again saying: “Stay while Meghiya, till some other monk appear, for we are alone.”
Then, Meghiya said the same thing even at the third time. That time the Buddha did not prevent him and allowed him to go saying:
“What can we say to you, Meghiya, when you repeat: ‘I would strive’? Do now Meghiya, as you think fit.”[14]
In this case, the Buddha did not think that as Meghiya is his personal attendant, he must remain all the time with him. If the Buddha thought in that way, he would not have given permission to venerable Meghiya to go there. He may have understood that Meghiya is going for his own benefit; therefore he must allow him to go, though he is alone without a second. The Buddha was not unhappy with the venerable Meghiya. When he came back, the Buddha accepted him as usual and preached the Dhamma according to his requirement.
Fatherly affection
Attitude of the Buddha towards the members of the Order can be compared to that of a father who has the sympathy towards his sons. The Buddha treated them as his own children. Once, the Buddha honoured Sariputta by saying that he is his self-begotten son:
Yam kho tam, bhikkhave, sammā vadamāno vadeyya: Bhagavato putto oraso mukhatojāto dhammajo dhammanimmito dhammadāyādo no āmisadāyādoti,-Sāriputtam eva tam sammāvadamano vadeyya.[15]
Just like a father wills to hand over his heritage to his sons, the Buddha had tried his very best to bestow his heritage to all the members of the sangha. His heritage was nothing but the Dhamma which he discovered at the foot of the Bodhi tree. In the Dhammadāyāda-sutta, the Buddha invited monks to be his heirs of Dhamma.[16] His only expectation was to see the monks who are kept themselves within their own preserves which inherited to them as a parental property. In the Cakkavatti-sīhanāda-sutta, the Buddha said to monks:
“Keep to your own preserves, monks, to your ancestral haunts (pettike visaye). If you do so, then Mara will find no lodgment, no foothold. It is just by the building-up of wholesome states that this merit increases”.[17]
He promulgated a set of disciplinary rules for the Sangha in order to correct the mischievous disciples and keep them back within the Bramacariya life. He did not have any idea to control the Sangha mealy by the injunctions or restrictive regulations. It is the belief of Vinaya tradition that there was no occasion for the Buddha to promulgate disciplinary rules within the first twenty years of the Sāsana.[18] The Buddha is said to be pleased to remember the monks who lived under the guidance of the Buddha without the restrictive regulations. The following statement of the Buddha clearly reveals how he was pleased with the behaviour of the monks who were not restricted to disciplinary rules:
“Monks, the monks at one time caused indeed to please my mind. Then I, monks, addressed the monks saying: Now I, monks, partaking of a meal at one session, I, monks, am aware of good health and of being without illness and of buoyancy and strength and living in comfort. Come you too, monks, partake of a meal at one session; you too monks, will be aware of good health and of being without illness and of buoyancy and strength and living in comfort. There was nothing to be done by me, monks, by way of instruction to those monks; all that was to be done by me, monks, was only to make remind them”.[19]
He did not show any rival attitude even to those who constantly attempted to transgress the rules. It is reported in the Vinaya that there were some groups of monks as well as nuns during the time of the Buddha who had given much of trouble to the Buddha by engaging frequently in mischievous activities. Chabbaggiya (group of six) monks and the nuns and Sattarasa-vaggiya (group of seventeen) monks were famous for those activities. But the Buddha never tried to expel them from the Order because of their mischievous activities. They were not only miscreants and rebellious but also they openly protested against the disciplinary measures adopted by the Buddha. Anguttara-nikaya records a monk known as Kassapagotta of Pankadha protested at a discourse of the Buddha in which he advised with a monastic discipline.[20]The Buddha himself admitted in the Laţukikopama-sutta that there were some monks who cause dissatisfaction to be nursed against him when he asked them not to do something. The sutta puts it in the following way:
“Udāyi, some foolish persons here, on being told by me: ‘give this up’, speak thus: ‘But what of this trifling insignificant matter? This recluse lays too much emphasis on (exertion).’ But they do not give it up and they cause dissatisfaction to be nursed against me and against those monks who desire the training”. [21]
Whenever monks uncontrollably engaged in such rebellious and mischievous activities; sometimes pretending themselves as the true representatives of the Buddhist Sangha, the Buddha allowed pure monks to charge them by taking corrective actions, which come under the section of punishments (daṇḍa-kamma).
As long as monks remained in the spiritual earnestness to achieve the expected result so long as the Buddha did not show any interest to restrict the Order into a frame of legalized administration. In the Bhaddālisutta, it is clearly mentioned by the Buddha that he does not lay down sikkhāpada until the signs of corruption appear in the Order. There he said:
“Not until some conditions which cause cankers appear here in the Order thus the Teacher, lay down a rule of training for disciples. But when, Bhaddāli, some conditions which cause cankers appear here in the Order, then the Teacher lays down a rule of training for disciples so as to ward off those very conditions which cause cankers”.[22]
As far as the spiritual well-being of the Sangha is concerned, so far the Buddha has also paid his attention to the physical well-being of them as well. He never forgot to inquire into the health condition of his disciples. One of the reasons that led the Buddha to recommend for monks one meal for a day is said to be the maintenance of good health of them. The Kakacũpama-sutta reminds us that when the Buddha advised the monks to have one meal for a day, he mainly concerned about their good health. The Discourse discloses it in the following way:
“Now I monks, partake of a meal at one session. Partaking of a meal at one session, I, monks, am aware of good health and of being without illness and of buoyancy and strength and living in comfort. Come you too, monks, partake of a meal at one session; partaking of a meal at one session you too, monks will be aware of good health and of being without illness and of buoyancy and strength and living in comfort”.[23]
The attitude of the Buddha towards the well-being of the disciples is nicely depicted in a statement made by the Buddha when he addressed venerable Maha-kassapa. Venerable Mahakassapa was the one who received the honour from the Buddha for the practices of forest dwelling, subsisting on alms food (piṇḍapāta) and wearing rag-robes. He was practicing these virtues of the monks for a long time. On one occasion, he visited the Buddha in the monastery of Bamboo Grove in Rājagaha. Looking at the weary appearance of venerable Mahā-kassapa, the Buddha said to him:
“You are old now, Kassapa, and those worn out hempen rag-robes must be burdensome for you. Therefore you should wear robes offered by householders, Kassapa, accept meal given on invitation, and dwell close to me”.[24]
No monopoly in preaching
It is true that the monks have the great esteem over the Buddha as their leader who directed them to the spiritual path; the Buddha never made an attempt to maintain a monopoly over the monks in respect of instruction. In several occasions, the Buddha expected his senior disciples to take responsibility of instructing and counseling of other fellow members. In this respect, it is worthwhile to quote Prof. Jotiya Dhirasekera.
“Not only did the Buddha give counsel himself but he also expected the lives of his disciples to be regulated through the guidance and instruction of other senior members of the Order. Samyutta Nikāya gives a number of instances where the Buddha requests the venerable Mahā Kassapa to admonish as much as he does”.[25]
The Samyutta-nikāya puts forward the request of the Buddha to venerable Mahā Kassapa in the following way:
Exhort the Bhikkhũs, Kassapa, give them a Dhamma talk. Either I should exhort the Bhikkhũ, Kassapa,or you should. Either I should give them a Dhamma talk or you should.[26]
Even without the invitation of the Buddha, some senior disciples such as Sāriputta, and Moggallāna are reported to have given counsel to the fellow monks with the intention of keeping them out of evil and place them on the path of virtue (Sādhu vata bho sabrahmacāri akusalā uţţhāpetva kusale patiţţhāpeti-M.1.32.). The monks also are reported to have paid their attention to them in the similar way to the Buddha whenever the senior monks addressed them for some counseling. Their counseling is also reported to have been received by the fellow members with great enthusiasm. When venerable Sāriputta addressed the monks and advised them in the Anangana-sutta, at the end of it, venerable Moggallāna who was delighted with the way of venerable Sāriputta’s explanation praised him saying:
…having heard this disquisition on Dhamma from the venerable Sāriputta, seem to drink it, seem to savour it with speech as well as with mind. Indeed it is good that a fellow Brahma-farer, having caused one to rise up from what is unskilled, establishes him in what is skilled.[27]
The Buddha has given freedom to those who have well versed in the Dhamma to instruct others. It was not necessary for monks to beg permission from the Buddha to preach Dhamma or to give instructions to other fellow Brahma farers. Instances are abundantly mentioned in the discourses where the disciples are reported to have preached the doctrine on their own accord or with the invitation of others. The Pali canon includes a lot of discourses preached by the disciples without discriminations whether they were monks or nuns along with the Buddha’s own discourses. Discourses such as the Saccavibhanga, Sammādiţţhi, Dasuttara, Sangīti, Mahāvedalla and Anangana are attributed to venerable Sāriputta. Some of the discourses preached by Sāriputta were supplementary to the Buddha’s own discourses. The Dhammadāyāda, Rathavinīta and some other discourses are of that kind. Venerable Mahā-kaccāna was famous for describing in details what is preached by the Buddha in brief. The Madhupinòika-sutta is an instance of Mahākaccāna’s preaching in details on the topic given by the Buddha. The Cũlla-vedalla-sutta is reported to have preached by Bhikkuni Dhammadinnā. There are several instances where venerable Ananda is reported to have preached the Dhamma to monks[28] to his own accord and also to the laity[29]. In any of the occasion of which the disciples preached the Dhamma, the Buddha did not inquire them as to why they did not get permission from him for their sermons. Instead, hearing what they have preached, the Buddha commended them for their abilities.
Once, venerable Ānanda, listening to a conversation on doctrinal maters between Sāriputta and wanderers of other sects, reported to the Buddha entire conversation that he heard. The Buddha, commending Sāriputta said to Ānanda:
Good, good, Ānanda! Anyone answering rightly would answer just as Sāriputta has done…If one were to speak thus one would be starting what has been said by me and would not misrepresent me with what is contrary to fact.[30]
Praising disciples
The Buddha is unique as the teacher who sought the well-being of the disciples. He always encouraged and instructed them to achieve the highest fruits of his teachings. He never hesitated to praise the achievements of his disciples. It was the nature of the Buddha that he was ever ready to praise anyone whoever worthy of praise. According to his own teaching, it is one of the duties of a teacher that the teacher must speak well of disciples among their friends and companions.[31] It is to be accepted without doubt that the Buddha has fulfilled that duty in the highest level. The discourses disclose the numerous instances where the Buddha whole heartedly gave pride of place to his worthiest disciples in front of others and put them in the due places.
Referring to one of his chief disciples, Sāriputta, the Buddha has made the following remarks:
“Wise art thou, Sāriputta, comprehensive and manifold thy wisdom, joyous and swift, sharp and fastidious. Even as the eldest son of a Cakkavatti king turns the wheel as his father hath turned it, so dost rightly turn the Wheel of the Dhamma, even as I have turned it”.[32]
The Anupada-sutta can be regarded as a eulogy of Sāriputta by the Buddha. There, the Buddha praised him in high esteem as the supreme example of the perfect disciple, raised to mastery and perfection in noble virtue, noble concentration, noble perception, and noble deliverance.[33]
The Anguttara-nikāya records an instance of the Buddha’s praising of Ānanda’s erudition. When the Buddha having presented the doctrine in brief went away, the monks who listened to the Buddha approached Ānanda in order to know in details what the Buddha said in brief. Ānanda made an exposition to the topic of the Buddha. The monks delighted with the explanation of Ānanda informed the Buddha their satisfaction on what was said by Ānanda. Then the Buddha praising Ānanda said thus:
Good, good, monks! Ānandais erudite. O monks, Ānanda is thoroughly intelligent. If you were to ask me this matter I would also explain just as Ānanda explained it. It is the meaning of that. Remember it as it is[34].
It is indeed heart rending to note that how the Buddha consoled Ānanda and praised him when he was lamenting, leaning on the door-post knowing that the Buddha was about to pass away. The Buddha called him and said:
Enough, Ānanda, do not weep and wail! Have I not already told you that all things that are pleasant and delightful are changeable, subject to separation and becoming other? So how could it be, Ānanda, since whatever is born, become, compounded is subject to decay – how could it be that it should not pass away? For a long time, Ānanda, you have been in the Tathāgata’s presence, showing loving-kindness in act of body, speech and mind, beneficially, blessedly, whole-heartedly, and unstintingly. You have achieved much merit,Ānanda, Make the effort, and in a short time you will be free of the corruptions
Then the Lord addressed the monks:
Monks, all those who were Arahant, fully-enlightened Buddhas in the past have had just such a chief attendant as Ānanda, and so too will those Blessed Lords who come in the future. Monks, Ānanda is wise. He knows when it is the right time for monks to come to see theTathāgata, when it is the right time for nuns, for male lay-followers, for female lay-followers, for kings, for royal ministers, for leaders of other schools, and for their pupils.
Ānanda has four remarkable and wonderful qualities. What are they? If a company of monks comes to see Ānanda, they are pleased at the sight of him, and when Ānanda talks Dammato them they are pleased, and when he is silent they are disappointed, and so it is, too, with nuns, with male and female lay-followers. And these four qualities apply to a wheel-turning monarch: If he is visited by a company of Khattiyas, of Brāhmanās, of householders, or of ascetics, they are pleased at the sight of him and when he talks to them, and when he is silent they are disappointed. And so too it is with Ānanda.[35]
It is really hard to find out a teacher who comes forward to introduce a disciple equating to him. It was the Buddha who spoke of venerable Mahā-kassapa equalizing to himself in his power of attaining the jhānas, higher knowledge and entering and dwelling in taintless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom. In the Samyutta-nikāya the Buddha is said to have praised venerable Mahā-kassapa in front of the monks placing him in the same position of his own with regard to above mentioned capacities. The following quotation would illustrate a rare quality of a teacher of which the Buddha possessed:
Bhikkhũs, to whatever extent I wish with the divine ear element, which is purified and surpasses the human, I hear kind of sounds, the divine and human, those that are far as well as near. Kassapa too, to whatever extent he wishes, with the divine ear element, which is purified and surpasses the human, hears both kinds of sounds…Bhikkhũs, by the destruction of the taints, in this very life I enter and dwell in the taintless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, realizing it for myself with direct knowledge. Kassapa too, by the destruction of taints, in this very life enters and dwells in the taintless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, realizing it for himself with direct knowledge.[36]
Placing disciples in due positions
The Buddha was well aware of the abilities and the capacities of his disciples who closely associated him. Sometimes, the Buddha entrusted some duties to them accordingly as their abilities. When the group of miscreant monks known as Assajipunabbasukā Bhikkhũs of Kiţagiri were acting against the proper form of monastic behaviour and representing themselves as true Buddhist Sangha, the Buddha entrusted to Sāriputta and Moggallāna to carry out the disciplinary actions against them.[37]Venerable Ānanda was assigned to design a robe to be in pattern like a field in Magadha.[38]
Etadagga-vagga of Anguttara-nikāya contains the names of disciples- Bhikkhu, Bhikkhuni,Upāsakaand Upāsikā who were enlisted by the Buddha as the possessors of divers special qualifications. It is one of the qualities of a teacher to assess the capacities of the disciples and put them in the due places. It is reported that the Buddha in the monks’ assembly conferred each of them the first rank in certain capacities among the monks who bear the same capacities. For example, venerable Ānanda was ranked foremost Bhikkhu in five respects among the monks who possess the same qualities. The five qualities are namely: erudition, good behaviour, retentive memory, resoluteness and personal attention. Sāriputta was ranked foremost among those who possessed wisdom; Bhikkhunis Khema and Uppalavannā were respectively declared to be the foremost among women disciples for great insight and best among those possessed of supernormal powers. The male disciple Anāthapinòika and female disciple Visakhā were respectively declared by the Buddha to be foremost among male who ministered to the Order and to be foremost among female who ministered to the Order.
Devolution of power
The Buddha never thought that as he was the authority over the matters pertaining to the Order and he must do all the activities of the Sangha. As mention earlier, the Buddha was ready to share the position of instructor to the Sangha with venerable Mahā-kassapa. He did not wish to centralize all the administrative power around himself. At the outset of the Order, the Buddha appeared as the authority for the new comers to the Order. He exercised his power to confer the ordination to those who entered the Order. Bud, when the number of followers increased, he entrusted his responsibility to the Order.[39] All the formal activities of the Order should have to be performed locally under the guidance of the elder monk who is capable of doing such activities. Even in the case of the admission of women into the Order, women were asked to obtain higher ordination from the monks.[40]Further, the Buddha did not want to exercise the power of safeguarding the Bhikkhuni Order though it was a newly established Order under rigid conditions. Eight heavy conditions (Aţţha-garudhammā) enforced upon the Bhikkhuni Order can be considered as a given permission by the Buddha to the Order of monks to look after the wellbeing of the former.
It can clearly be seen that the Buddha was able to arrange all the necessary requirements in his life time for the Order to remain as a well-organized self-controlled institution. As the result of the way that the Buddha devolved his administrative power among the members of the order, even the local bodies of the order can exercise the full-pledged power to conduct their own activities without referring to any hierarchy.
In Addition to the cord of conduct which is meant to regulate the behavior of the members the Buddha introduced an institution by the name of Uposatha-kamma for the smooth functioning of the activities of the Order. Uposatha Kamma which should be conducted fortnightly with the participation of all the members of each local body of the Order was not only a mere recitation of rules of the code of conduct, but also considered to be an authorized legal institution on which the power was vested to impose the punishments to the offenders, according to the gravity of the rules violated by them. It is quite evidential that at the time of the Buddha Uposatha-kamma of the monks was a dynamic institution which ensured the purity and unity of the members of the Order. Not long before the passing away of the Buddha, A Brahmin called GopakaMoggallana raised a question in front of Ven. Ānanda as to how the Order can exists without the Master. The following was the answer given by Ven. Ānanda to that question of the Brahmin:
O Brahmin, the Exalted one has laid down Sikkhāpada and instituted the Patimokkha for the use of the Bhikkhũs. We are the Bhikkhũ for whom they were laid down and all of us who live by a single village unit assemble ourselves together on the day of Uposatha and whosoever amongst us knows it, i. e. the Pāimokkha we request him to recite it. While it is being recited if a bhikkhu has an offence or a transgression of which he is guilty then we deal with him according to the Dhamma and injunctions. It is not the monks who punish us but the Dhamma which punishes us[41]
This clearly shows us how the institution of Uposatha was instrumental for the proper maintenance of monastic discipline. Another ritualistic institution introduced by the Buddha which should be annually conducted after the rainy retreat is known as Pavārana. Here each monk has to make a request to the Sangha with whom he has spend the rains-retreat to declare his conduct as in the way that they have seen, heard or suspected to judge whether he is guilty of any transgression. This request should be made at the ritual of Pavārana by each member of the monks who spend rains-retreat together for their self-correction. This ritual can be done only after taking appropriate disciplinary action against the member if he is found guilty of any offence[42]. This clearly shows that not only the ritual of Patimokkha but also Pavārana was introduced by the Buddha with double purposes namely purity and unity. Legal authority entrusted on the institution of pavārana is further evident from the following statement appeared in the Vinaya:
“The monk who is charged with a pārājika offence if he were to admit that he is guilty of it has to be punished and then the Pavārana should performed by the monks[43]”
Though both the institutions referred to above are entrusted to follow the legal procedure against the members of the Oder who transgress the code of discipline, other matters pertaining to the Order which require the legal actions had been vested on other type of formal acts which should be performed according to the circumstances. Matters together with those arising from violation of the disciplinary rules which necessitate the legal prosecution (referred to as adhikarana) are considered to be four kinds. They are as follows:
Vivādādhikaraṇa, disputes arising within the Oder relating to the mattes of Dhamma and Vinaya
Anuvādādhikaraṇa, accusations of fellow members
Āpattādhikaraṇa, transgressions of the vinaya rules
Kiccādhikaraṇa, irregularities resulting from the failure of proper procedure in all monastic formal acts
Penalties and punishments which should be imposed against the members who become offenders under the disciplinary code should have to be decided in accordance with the gravity of the rules violated by them. All the rules amounting to 220 come under seven categories with reference to their severity. They are pārājika, sanghādisesa, aniyata, nissaggiya-pācittiya, pācittiya, pātidesaniya and sekhiyā. Punishments acknowledged for the violation of rules pertaining to the categories referred to above are respectively as follows: excommunication, Temporary suspension from the Order until the offender fulfills all the requirements which are necessary for the complete purification, confession with forfeiture, confession and confession with verbally acknowledging the offence.
The Buddha has introduced some other five kinds of act of punishments in addition to those referred to above for certain shortcomings of the members of the Order which are not directly related to the code of discipline. Acts of punishment are as follows:
Tajjaniyakamma - Act of Censure
Nissayakamma - Act of Subordination
Pabbājaniyakamma - Act of Banishment
Patisārāniyakamma - Act of Reconciliation
Ukkhepaniyakamma - Act of Suspension[44]
Matters dealt with above mentioned acts of punishment can be regarded as the blameworthy characters of the members of the monastic community. Except the Patisārāniyakamma, others are recommended for the reprehensible features of the members which can be categorized as follows:
iii. Keeping company of householders, unbecoming association of householders
iii. Holding the wrong views, falling away from right views
iii. Dispraising the Sangha.[45]
Reprehensible features of the behavior of the members of the Order which affect the life of the householders are subjected to the act of Tajjaniyakamma. Those features are enumerated as follows:
iii. Trying for non-residence for the householders
iv. Reviling and abusing householders
v. Causing to break friendship of householders
B. i. Speaking dispraise of the Buddha to householders
ii. Speaking dispraise of the Dhamma to householders
iii. Speaking dispraise of the Sangha to householders
iv. Disparaging a householder with low thing
v. Non-fulfilling the good promise made to a householders[46].
The ways of solving the legal disputes arising from disciplinary actions within the monastic Order had also being formulated by the Buddha in order to correct the monastic indiscipline. The ways of the settlement of the legal disputes and conflicts referred to as Adhikarana-samatha are of seven kinds. They are 1. Sammukhā-vinaya : by a verdict in the presence of (the sangha, the parties, the Dhamma and the Vinaya), 2. Sati-vinaya : by a verdict of innocence. 3. Amũlha-vinaya: by a of past insanity, 4.Paţiññātakarana-vinaya : by a verdict acting in accordance with acknowledgement (by the accused), 5. Yebhuyyasikā: by the decision of the majority, 6. Tassapāpeyyasikā: by acting in accordance with the further misconducts of the accused and 7. Tiṇavatthāraka: by the covering up with grass (or covering over as with grass)[47].
All the formal activities (Sangha-kamma or Vinaya-kamma) including rituals as well as disciplinary actions of the Order are valid only if they are done in a properly formed committee or assembly of the monks. According the nature of the activity, members of such committees should have to be qualified with the necessary conditions as pointed out in the Vinaya. Assemblies where the formal activities can be performed in accordance with the matter in question are of fourfold. They are:
1.Catuvaggika - A committee which comprised of at least the quorum of four members is valid for all acts except Upasampadā, Pavārana and Abbhāna.
The formal acts, according to the way of its performance, are considered as fourfold[48]:
A brief account of the Buddhist monastic Order given above reveals to us that the Buddha had made an enormous effort to make his monastic Order a self-sufficient, autonomous pure and united and stable organization which can work for the benefit of many for a long time
Conclusion
It is abundantly clear that the Buddha had not even a slightest intention to have a monastic Order controlled under rigid rules and restrictions to maintain his power as a gigantic religious leader. Attitude of the Buddha towards his disciples as shown above clearly points to the fact that he was led to establish an Order of monks by his great compassion towards the members of the order as well as the rest of the mankind. There is no doubt that the purity and unity which are the end result of the institution of the monks, as expected by the Buddha, necessarily stand for the benefit of the world.
.
[1]Vin.1.23ff.
[2]Nayidam sukaram agāram ajjhāvasatā ekantaparipunnam ekantaparisuddham sankhalikhitam brahmacariyam caritum.D. 1. 63.
[3]Jotiya Dhirasekera, Buddhist Monastic Discipline, Ministry of Higher Education Publication Series, Sri Lanka,1982. P. 39.
[4]Malalasekera G.P. Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, Munshiram Manoharlal , India, 1983, p.806.
[5] D.1. 113
[6]Harvey Peter, An Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, 1990. p.73
[7]The Long Discourses of the Buddha, p.431
[8]Vin, 111.21.
[9] Buddhist Monastic Discipline p.128
[10] D. II. 100.
[11]Udumbarika-sīhanāda-sutta. D.111.56
[12]Bhayabherava-sutta. M.1.16
[13]A. 1V. 351.
[14]A. 1V. 356.
[15]Anupada-sutta.M.111.29
[16]“Dhammadāyadā me bhikkhave bhavatha mā amisadāyādā.” Dhammadāyāda-sutta.M.1.12.
[17]“Gocare bhikkave caratha sake pettike visaye.”Cakkavatti-sīhanāda-sutta.D.111.58.
[18]Vin A.1.213.
[19].M.1.124.
[20] “Atha kho kassapagottassa bhikkhuno bhagavatā sikkhāpadapatisamyuttāya dhammiyākathāya bhikku sandassante samādapente samuttejente ahudeva akkhanti ahu appaccayo adhisallikhitevāyam samaṇoti”-A. 1.236
[21]Laţukikopama-sutta. Middle Length Saying.11.121
[22]Bhaddāli-sutta.M.1.445.
[23] M. I, Kakacũpama-sutta.124.
[24]The Connected Discourses of the Buddha.p.666.
[25]Buddhist Monastic Discipline,128.
[26]The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, P.667:.“Ovada kassapa bhikkhũ karohi kassapa bhikkũnam dhammikatham. Aham vā kassapa bhikkhũ ovadeyyam tvam vā. Aham vā bhikkhũnam dhammikatham kareyyām tvam vāti”(S.11.203, 205, 208).
[27]Anangana-sutta. M.1.40
[28] A.11. 156f
[29] A. 11. 194.
[30]S. Nidana-vagga. 24 (4)
[31]Sigālaka-sutta.D. III
[32] S. I. 191
[33]Anupada-sutta, M.111.25ff.
[34]A. v. 229.
[35]Mahā-parinibbāna-sutta.The Long Discourses of the Buddha. P.265-6
[36]The Connected Discourses of the Buddha.p.674
[37]Vin. 11.14; 111. 182
[38]Vin 1.287.
[39]. See Mahāvagga, Mahākkhandhaka
[40]. See Cullavagga, Bhikkhunikkhandhaka
[41] M. III. 10 (translated by Prof. JotiyaDhirasekera in Buddhist Manastic Discipline, P. 173)
[42]“ Yathādhammam kārāpetvā sanghena pavāretabbam”. Vin. I. 173
[43]“So ce bhikkhave cuditobhikkhu pārājikamāpannoti patijānāti nāsetvā sanghena pavāretabbam”. Vin. I. 173
[44] See Culla-vagga, Kammakkhandhaka
[45] Ibid
[46]Ibd
[47]Vin. II. 73f.-88f.
[48]See. Cullavagga, Samathakkhandhaka
It is indeed admirable that the existence of Buddhist Monastic Order for more than two and a half millenniums as the first ever human welfare organization in the world without deviating from its basic objectives. Though it flourished with traditional and geographical differences due to its propagation in various countries it exists unchanged from the original anticipation of the founder, the Buddha. Advent of the Buddha in the world according to Anguttara nikāya, is said to be for the wellbeing and happiness of many. There is no doubt that the Buddha has presented his teaching which can bring forth happiness and wellbeing of people irrespective of their manifoldness in time and space. It was the intention of the Buddha that the doctrine realized and revealed by him may reach to the maximum number of people so that many can have the benefit of it.
The Buddha established his monastic Order in order to actualize his expectation of conveying his doctrine to the maximum possible number of people. Rules and regulations were laid down by the Buddha for the Order to make it an ideal society through which expected result can be achieved. Two principle characteristics namely unity and purity were considered to be the strength of the Order. Hence, most of the rules and regulations were aimed at ensuring the unity among the members and the purity of their personal conduct. The Order was made into a institution upon which legal power was vested in order to regulate the behavior of the members in the way that it brings forth the unity and the purity. It seems that the desire of the Buddha in designing the structure of the Order was to have self-governed institution based on democratic policy where the personal supremacy was rejected. This paper is intended to deal with the attitude of the Buddha towards the members of his monastic Order and the way how the Buddha has strengthen the Order giving it the vibrancy and dynamism necessary to continue the services for humanity..
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The Buddha comes first in the history of religion who secured the honour for the establishment of the longest standing monastic Order, the Bhikkhu organization. The Order which came into being with the inclusion of five monks named as monks of the group of five (Panca-vaggiyā bhikkũ) immediately after the first sermon of the Buddha, gradually increased in number and was able to exist even today in different countries in the world for over two thousand six hundred years. Not long before its conception, it became popular among the people of Magadha and achieved rapid development in numbers causing a fair number of parents of Magadha to blame the Buddha calling him a destroyer of families and accusing him of making widows, out of their young daughters.[1]
It seems that the intention of the Buddha to have an Order as the inner cycle of his religion is of two kinds. That is to intensify the spiritual progress of the members and to make the members worthy of conveying his message to the world. The order is consisted of the members who have given up their household life. As it is taught, “hard is the holy life which is fully perfected and purified for a householder who is living at home”.[2] Regarding the renunciation of household life of the Buddhist Order, observes Prof. Jotiya Dhirasekera:
“It is abundantly clear that early Buddhism with its spiritual earnestness considered Pubbajja or the life renunciation as the ideal religious life. The life of the monk is a stage beyond that of a laymen, and the passage from lay life to recluse-ship is always looked upon as an advance, a step forward in spiritual progress”[3]
The Buddha as the spiritual leader of the Order constantly gave the instruction and advice to its members encouraging them to achieve the desired goal in this very life. Speaking on the Buddha’s dedication to the requirements of the disciples, Prof. Malalasekera points out:
“The Buddha was extremely devoted to his disciples and encouraged them in every way in their difficult life. The Theragatha and Therigatha are full of stories indicating that he watched, with great care, the spiritual growth and development of his disciples, understood their problems and was ready with timely interference to help them to win their aims”[4]
In addition to the disciple’s spiritual fulfillment, other expectation of the Buddha as mentioned earlier; was to build up the Order in a firm ground in the way that it can be stable for a long time in the world for the benefit of the mankind. This idea was brought forward by the Buddha in the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta where it is said that the Buddha, not long after his enlightenment, told Mara that he would not pass away into parinibbāna until his fourfold assembly is well and firmly established[5]. However, it is evident that the Buddha was able to bring these two purposes into realities in his life time. How the Buddha was successful in this regard is evident from the fact that, as Peter Harvey points out, ‘no other human institution has had such a long-lasting existence, along with such a wide diffusion, as the Buddhist Sangha’.[6] The Buddha himself admitted in the Pāsādika-sutta that his fourfold assembly is already firmed enough to exist for a long time. This fact was revealed by the Buddha to venerable Cunda in the following way:
“However, there are senior teachers among the monks, who are experienced, trained, skilled, who have attained peace from bondage, able to proclaim the true Dhamma, able to refute by means of the Dhamma any opposing doctrines that may arise and, having done so, give a grounded exposition of Dhamma. And there are middle ranking-monks who are disciplined and experienced, there are novices who are disciples, there are senior, middle ranking and novice nuns who are disciples, there are white-robed lay followers, male and female, celibate and non-celibate, and the holy life I proclaim prosperous and flourishes, is widespread, widely-known, proclaimed far and wide, well proclaimed among humans”.[7]
The Buddha expected nothing personal from the Order except the unity and the purity of its members through which the well-being of the Order could be established. He promulgated a code of disciplinary rules to regulate the life of the monks seeking mainly purity, well-being and convenience of the Sangha and the stability and continuance of the Dhamma.[8]
In order to maintain the purity and the unity among the members of the Order, the Buddha approved certain rites and rituals to be performed with the participation of all the members of a group, sometimes fortnightly (e.g. Uposatha or pātimokkha recitation) and some times, annually (e.g. Pavārana). Unity and integrity of the Order was a must to bring the expectation of the Buddha into reality. Therefore, it seems that the Buddha was equally concerned about both purity and the unity of the monks.
Democratic administration
The Buddha was democratic in his attitude towards the Order. He never acted as a dictator expecting monks to be under his control. It was never the Buddha’s desire, as Prof. Dhirasekera observed, ‘to exercise too much personal control over the Sangha by himself’.[9]In his last moment the Buddha revealed to venerable Ānanda that ‘the Tathāgata does not think that ‘I shall take charge of the order or Order should refer to me’.[10] It is expressed by the Buddha himself that even he did not teach his doctrine with the intention of getting the disciples. In the Udumbarika-sihanāda-sutta, the Buddha made it clear to wanderer Nigrodha in the following way:
“Nigrodha, you may think: ‘The ascetic Gotama says this in order to get disciples.’ But you should not regard it like that.”[11]
Though the Buddha did not have such an idea, it was the sincere feeling of the monks that the Buddha was their religious leader. The venerable Assaji, when he was questioned by wanderer Upatissa (Sāriputta) told him that he has gone forth referring to the Buddha and the Buddha is his master. (tāham bhagavantam uddissa pabbajito so ca me bhagavā satthā-Vin.11.40). In the Bhayabherave-sutta, the Brahamin Jānussoni is reported to have said the Buddha that the householders have gone forth into homelessness out of faith in the Buddha, of those the Buddha is the leader, to those the Buddha is of great service, of those the Buddha is the adviser and those people emulate the views of the Buddha.[12]
As the Buddha was a religious master who showed the spiritual path to his disciples, they were naturally persuaded by their faith to consider him as their leader (pubbangamo). Most of the people entered into the order because of the faith in the Buddha (saddhāya agārasmā anagāriyam pabbajitvā) during the life time of the Buddha. Therefore, they inclined to think that not only the Buddha as their leader but also the doctrine that they were following as rooted in the Buddha. When the disciples wanted something to get to be clarified by the Buddha, the following is the usual way of expressing their requirement:
“Venerable sir, our teachings are rooted in the Blessed One, guided by the Blessed One, take recourse in the Blessed One. It would be good if the Blessed One would clear up the meaning of this statement. Having heard it from him, bhikkhus will remember it”.[13]
Whatever has been done by the Buddha for the well-being of the Order has been done not as the ruler but as the teacher seeking the welfare of his disciple (satthārā sāvakānam hitesinā anukampakena-M.1.118). The Buddha always gave the priority to the requirements of the disciples. He never thought of himself. Once, venerable Meghiya who was the personal attendant to the Buddha at that time was at Calika with the Buddha. Before noon he wandered about for alms and returned there from and finished his meal, he came to the bank of the Kimikāla River. There he saw a mango grove, pleasing and beautiful; and at the sight, he thought to go and strive there in the mango grove. Then he returned to the Buddha to get the permission to go there. The Buddha interrupted him saying: “Stay while, Meghiya, till some other monk appear, for we are alone.” But Meghiya, however, wanted to go there and then he told the Buddha:
“Lord, for the exalted One there is nothing further to be done; there is no adding to his accomplishments. But for me, lord, there is more to be done; to what is done, there is more to be added. If the Exalted One permits me, I will go to that mango grove and strive.”
The Buddha prevented him again saying: “Stay while Meghiya, till some other monk appear, for we are alone.”
Then, Meghiya said the same thing even at the third time. That time the Buddha did not prevent him and allowed him to go saying:
“What can we say to you, Meghiya, when you repeat: ‘I would strive’? Do now Meghiya, as you think fit.”[14]
In this case, the Buddha did not think that as Meghiya is his personal attendant, he must remain all the time with him. If the Buddha thought in that way, he would not have given permission to venerable Meghiya to go there. He may have understood that Meghiya is going for his own benefit; therefore he must allow him to go, though he is alone without a second. The Buddha was not unhappy with the venerable Meghiya. When he came back, the Buddha accepted him as usual and preached the Dhamma according to his requirement.
Fatherly affection
Attitude of the Buddha towards the members of the Order can be compared to that of a father who has the sympathy towards his sons. The Buddha treated them as his own children. Once, the Buddha honoured Sariputta by saying that he is his self-begotten son:
Yam kho tam, bhikkhave, sammā vadamāno vadeyya: Bhagavato putto oraso mukhatojāto dhammajo dhammanimmito dhammadāyādo no āmisadāyādoti,-Sāriputtam eva tam sammāvadamano vadeyya.[15]
Just like a father wills to hand over his heritage to his sons, the Buddha had tried his very best to bestow his heritage to all the members of the sangha. His heritage was nothing but the Dhamma which he discovered at the foot of the Bodhi tree. In the Dhammadāyāda-sutta, the Buddha invited monks to be his heirs of Dhamma.[16] His only expectation was to see the monks who are kept themselves within their own preserves which inherited to them as a parental property. In the Cakkavatti-sīhanāda-sutta, the Buddha said to monks:
“Keep to your own preserves, monks, to your ancestral haunts (pettike visaye). If you do so, then Mara will find no lodgment, no foothold. It is just by the building-up of wholesome states that this merit increases”.[17]
He promulgated a set of disciplinary rules for the Sangha in order to correct the mischievous disciples and keep them back within the Bramacariya life. He did not have any idea to control the Sangha mealy by the injunctions or restrictive regulations. It is the belief of Vinaya tradition that there was no occasion for the Buddha to promulgate disciplinary rules within the first twenty years of the Sāsana.[18] The Buddha is said to be pleased to remember the monks who lived under the guidance of the Buddha without the restrictive regulations. The following statement of the Buddha clearly reveals how he was pleased with the behaviour of the monks who were not restricted to disciplinary rules:
“Monks, the monks at one time caused indeed to please my mind. Then I, monks, addressed the monks saying: Now I, monks, partaking of a meal at one session, I, monks, am aware of good health and of being without illness and of buoyancy and strength and living in comfort. Come you too, monks, partake of a meal at one session; you too monks, will be aware of good health and of being without illness and of buoyancy and strength and living in comfort. There was nothing to be done by me, monks, by way of instruction to those monks; all that was to be done by me, monks, was only to make remind them”.[19]
He did not show any rival attitude even to those who constantly attempted to transgress the rules. It is reported in the Vinaya that there were some groups of monks as well as nuns during the time of the Buddha who had given much of trouble to the Buddha by engaging frequently in mischievous activities. Chabbaggiya (group of six) monks and the nuns and Sattarasa-vaggiya (group of seventeen) monks were famous for those activities. But the Buddha never tried to expel them from the Order because of their mischievous activities. They were not only miscreants and rebellious but also they openly protested against the disciplinary measures adopted by the Buddha. Anguttara-nikaya records a monk known as Kassapagotta of Pankadha protested at a discourse of the Buddha in which he advised with a monastic discipline.[20]The Buddha himself admitted in the Laţukikopama-sutta that there were some monks who cause dissatisfaction to be nursed against him when he asked them not to do something. The sutta puts it in the following way:
“Udāyi, some foolish persons here, on being told by me: ‘give this up’, speak thus: ‘But what of this trifling insignificant matter? This recluse lays too much emphasis on (exertion).’ But they do not give it up and they cause dissatisfaction to be nursed against me and against those monks who desire the training”. [21]
Whenever monks uncontrollably engaged in such rebellious and mischievous activities; sometimes pretending themselves as the true representatives of the Buddhist Sangha, the Buddha allowed pure monks to charge them by taking corrective actions, which come under the section of punishments (daṇḍa-kamma).
As long as monks remained in the spiritual earnestness to achieve the expected result so long as the Buddha did not show any interest to restrict the Order into a frame of legalized administration. In the Bhaddālisutta, it is clearly mentioned by the Buddha that he does not lay down sikkhāpada until the signs of corruption appear in the Order. There he said:
“Not until some conditions which cause cankers appear here in the Order thus the Teacher, lay down a rule of training for disciples. But when, Bhaddāli, some conditions which cause cankers appear here in the Order, then the Teacher lays down a rule of training for disciples so as to ward off those very conditions which cause cankers”.[22]
As far as the spiritual well-being of the Sangha is concerned, so far the Buddha has also paid his attention to the physical well-being of them as well. He never forgot to inquire into the health condition of his disciples. One of the reasons that led the Buddha to recommend for monks one meal for a day is said to be the maintenance of good health of them. The Kakacũpama-sutta reminds us that when the Buddha advised the monks to have one meal for a day, he mainly concerned about their good health. The Discourse discloses it in the following way:
“Now I monks, partake of a meal at one session. Partaking of a meal at one session, I, monks, am aware of good health and of being without illness and of buoyancy and strength and living in comfort. Come you too, monks, partake of a meal at one session; partaking of a meal at one session you too, monks will be aware of good health and of being without illness and of buoyancy and strength and living in comfort”.[23]
The attitude of the Buddha towards the well-being of the disciples is nicely depicted in a statement made by the Buddha when he addressed venerable Maha-kassapa. Venerable Mahakassapa was the one who received the honour from the Buddha for the practices of forest dwelling, subsisting on alms food (piṇḍapāta) and wearing rag-robes. He was practicing these virtues of the monks for a long time. On one occasion, he visited the Buddha in the monastery of Bamboo Grove in Rājagaha. Looking at the weary appearance of venerable Mahā-kassapa, the Buddha said to him:
“You are old now, Kassapa, and those worn out hempen rag-robes must be burdensome for you. Therefore you should wear robes offered by householders, Kassapa, accept meal given on invitation, and dwell close to me”.[24]
No monopoly in preaching
It is true that the monks have the great esteem over the Buddha as their leader who directed them to the spiritual path; the Buddha never made an attempt to maintain a monopoly over the monks in respect of instruction. In several occasions, the Buddha expected his senior disciples to take responsibility of instructing and counseling of other fellow members. In this respect, it is worthwhile to quote Prof. Jotiya Dhirasekera.
“Not only did the Buddha give counsel himself but he also expected the lives of his disciples to be regulated through the guidance and instruction of other senior members of the Order. Samyutta Nikāya gives a number of instances where the Buddha requests the venerable Mahā Kassapa to admonish as much as he does”.[25]
The Samyutta-nikāya puts forward the request of the Buddha to venerable Mahā Kassapa in the following way:
Exhort the Bhikkhũs, Kassapa, give them a Dhamma talk. Either I should exhort the Bhikkhũ, Kassapa,or you should. Either I should give them a Dhamma talk or you should.[26]
Even without the invitation of the Buddha, some senior disciples such as Sāriputta, and Moggallāna are reported to have given counsel to the fellow monks with the intention of keeping them out of evil and place them on the path of virtue (Sādhu vata bho sabrahmacāri akusalā uţţhāpetva kusale patiţţhāpeti-M.1.32.). The monks also are reported to have paid their attention to them in the similar way to the Buddha whenever the senior monks addressed them for some counseling. Their counseling is also reported to have been received by the fellow members with great enthusiasm. When venerable Sāriputta addressed the monks and advised them in the Anangana-sutta, at the end of it, venerable Moggallāna who was delighted with the way of venerable Sāriputta’s explanation praised him saying:
…having heard this disquisition on Dhamma from the venerable Sāriputta, seem to drink it, seem to savour it with speech as well as with mind. Indeed it is good that a fellow Brahma-farer, having caused one to rise up from what is unskilled, establishes him in what is skilled.[27]
The Buddha has given freedom to those who have well versed in the Dhamma to instruct others. It was not necessary for monks to beg permission from the Buddha to preach Dhamma or to give instructions to other fellow Brahma farers. Instances are abundantly mentioned in the discourses where the disciples are reported to have preached the doctrine on their own accord or with the invitation of others. The Pali canon includes a lot of discourses preached by the disciples without discriminations whether they were monks or nuns along with the Buddha’s own discourses. Discourses such as the Saccavibhanga, Sammādiţţhi, Dasuttara, Sangīti, Mahāvedalla and Anangana are attributed to venerable Sāriputta. Some of the discourses preached by Sāriputta were supplementary to the Buddha’s own discourses. The Dhammadāyāda, Rathavinīta and some other discourses are of that kind. Venerable Mahā-kaccāna was famous for describing in details what is preached by the Buddha in brief. The Madhupinòika-sutta is an instance of Mahākaccāna’s preaching in details on the topic given by the Buddha. The Cũlla-vedalla-sutta is reported to have preached by Bhikkuni Dhammadinnā. There are several instances where venerable Ananda is reported to have preached the Dhamma to monks[28] to his own accord and also to the laity[29]. In any of the occasion of which the disciples preached the Dhamma, the Buddha did not inquire them as to why they did not get permission from him for their sermons. Instead, hearing what they have preached, the Buddha commended them for their abilities.
Once, venerable Ānanda, listening to a conversation on doctrinal maters between Sāriputta and wanderers of other sects, reported to the Buddha entire conversation that he heard. The Buddha, commending Sāriputta said to Ānanda:
Good, good, Ānanda! Anyone answering rightly would answer just as Sāriputta has done…If one were to speak thus one would be starting what has been said by me and would not misrepresent me with what is contrary to fact.[30]
Praising disciples
The Buddha is unique as the teacher who sought the well-being of the disciples. He always encouraged and instructed them to achieve the highest fruits of his teachings. He never hesitated to praise the achievements of his disciples. It was the nature of the Buddha that he was ever ready to praise anyone whoever worthy of praise. According to his own teaching, it is one of the duties of a teacher that the teacher must speak well of disciples among their friends and companions.[31] It is to be accepted without doubt that the Buddha has fulfilled that duty in the highest level. The discourses disclose the numerous instances where the Buddha whole heartedly gave pride of place to his worthiest disciples in front of others and put them in the due places.
Referring to one of his chief disciples, Sāriputta, the Buddha has made the following remarks:
“Wise art thou, Sāriputta, comprehensive and manifold thy wisdom, joyous and swift, sharp and fastidious. Even as the eldest son of a Cakkavatti king turns the wheel as his father hath turned it, so dost rightly turn the Wheel of the Dhamma, even as I have turned it”.[32]
The Anupada-sutta can be regarded as a eulogy of Sāriputta by the Buddha. There, the Buddha praised him in high esteem as the supreme example of the perfect disciple, raised to mastery and perfection in noble virtue, noble concentration, noble perception, and noble deliverance.[33]
The Anguttara-nikāya records an instance of the Buddha’s praising of Ānanda’s erudition. When the Buddha having presented the doctrine in brief went away, the monks who listened to the Buddha approached Ānanda in order to know in details what the Buddha said in brief. Ānanda made an exposition to the topic of the Buddha. The monks delighted with the explanation of Ānanda informed the Buddha their satisfaction on what was said by Ānanda. Then the Buddha praising Ānanda said thus:
Good, good, monks! Ānandais erudite. O monks, Ānanda is thoroughly intelligent. If you were to ask me this matter I would also explain just as Ānanda explained it. It is the meaning of that. Remember it as it is[34].
It is indeed heart rending to note that how the Buddha consoled Ānanda and praised him when he was lamenting, leaning on the door-post knowing that the Buddha was about to pass away. The Buddha called him and said:
Enough, Ānanda, do not weep and wail! Have I not already told you that all things that are pleasant and delightful are changeable, subject to separation and becoming other? So how could it be, Ānanda, since whatever is born, become, compounded is subject to decay – how could it be that it should not pass away? For a long time, Ānanda, you have been in the Tathāgata’s presence, showing loving-kindness in act of body, speech and mind, beneficially, blessedly, whole-heartedly, and unstintingly. You have achieved much merit,Ānanda, Make the effort, and in a short time you will be free of the corruptions
Then the Lord addressed the monks:
Monks, all those who were Arahant, fully-enlightened Buddhas in the past have had just such a chief attendant as Ānanda, and so too will those Blessed Lords who come in the future. Monks, Ānanda is wise. He knows when it is the right time for monks to come to see theTathāgata, when it is the right time for nuns, for male lay-followers, for female lay-followers, for kings, for royal ministers, for leaders of other schools, and for their pupils.
Ānanda has four remarkable and wonderful qualities. What are they? If a company of monks comes to see Ānanda, they are pleased at the sight of him, and when Ānanda talks Dammato them they are pleased, and when he is silent they are disappointed, and so it is, too, with nuns, with male and female lay-followers. And these four qualities apply to a wheel-turning monarch: If he is visited by a company of Khattiyas, of Brāhmanās, of householders, or of ascetics, they are pleased at the sight of him and when he talks to them, and when he is silent they are disappointed. And so too it is with Ānanda.[35]
It is really hard to find out a teacher who comes forward to introduce a disciple equating to him. It was the Buddha who spoke of venerable Mahā-kassapa equalizing to himself in his power of attaining the jhānas, higher knowledge and entering and dwelling in taintless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom. In the Samyutta-nikāya the Buddha is said to have praised venerable Mahā-kassapa in front of the monks placing him in the same position of his own with regard to above mentioned capacities. The following quotation would illustrate a rare quality of a teacher of which the Buddha possessed:
Bhikkhũs, to whatever extent I wish with the divine ear element, which is purified and surpasses the human, I hear kind of sounds, the divine and human, those that are far as well as near. Kassapa too, to whatever extent he wishes, with the divine ear element, which is purified and surpasses the human, hears both kinds of sounds…Bhikkhũs, by the destruction of the taints, in this very life I enter and dwell in the taintless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, realizing it for myself with direct knowledge. Kassapa too, by the destruction of taints, in this very life enters and dwells in the taintless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, realizing it for himself with direct knowledge.[36]
Placing disciples in due positions
The Buddha was well aware of the abilities and the capacities of his disciples who closely associated him. Sometimes, the Buddha entrusted some duties to them accordingly as their abilities. When the group of miscreant monks known as Assajipunabbasukā Bhikkhũs of Kiţagiri were acting against the proper form of monastic behaviour and representing themselves as true Buddhist Sangha, the Buddha entrusted to Sāriputta and Moggallāna to carry out the disciplinary actions against them.[37]Venerable Ānanda was assigned to design a robe to be in pattern like a field in Magadha.[38]
Etadagga-vagga of Anguttara-nikāya contains the names of disciples- Bhikkhu, Bhikkhuni,Upāsakaand Upāsikā who were enlisted by the Buddha as the possessors of divers special qualifications. It is one of the qualities of a teacher to assess the capacities of the disciples and put them in the due places. It is reported that the Buddha in the monks’ assembly conferred each of them the first rank in certain capacities among the monks who bear the same capacities. For example, venerable Ānanda was ranked foremost Bhikkhu in five respects among the monks who possess the same qualities. The five qualities are namely: erudition, good behaviour, retentive memory, resoluteness and personal attention. Sāriputta was ranked foremost among those who possessed wisdom; Bhikkhunis Khema and Uppalavannā were respectively declared to be the foremost among women disciples for great insight and best among those possessed of supernormal powers. The male disciple Anāthapinòika and female disciple Visakhā were respectively declared by the Buddha to be foremost among male who ministered to the Order and to be foremost among female who ministered to the Order.
Devolution of power
The Buddha never thought that as he was the authority over the matters pertaining to the Order and he must do all the activities of the Sangha. As mention earlier, the Buddha was ready to share the position of instructor to the Sangha with venerable Mahā-kassapa. He did not wish to centralize all the administrative power around himself. At the outset of the Order, the Buddha appeared as the authority for the new comers to the Order. He exercised his power to confer the ordination to those who entered the Order. Bud, when the number of followers increased, he entrusted his responsibility to the Order.[39] All the formal activities of the Order should have to be performed locally under the guidance of the elder monk who is capable of doing such activities. Even in the case of the admission of women into the Order, women were asked to obtain higher ordination from the monks.[40]Further, the Buddha did not want to exercise the power of safeguarding the Bhikkhuni Order though it was a newly established Order under rigid conditions. Eight heavy conditions (Aţţha-garudhammā) enforced upon the Bhikkhuni Order can be considered as a given permission by the Buddha to the Order of monks to look after the wellbeing of the former.
It can clearly be seen that the Buddha was able to arrange all the necessary requirements in his life time for the Order to remain as a well-organized self-controlled institution. As the result of the way that the Buddha devolved his administrative power among the members of the order, even the local bodies of the order can exercise the full-pledged power to conduct their own activities without referring to any hierarchy.
In Addition to the cord of conduct which is meant to regulate the behavior of the members the Buddha introduced an institution by the name of Uposatha-kamma for the smooth functioning of the activities of the Order. Uposatha Kamma which should be conducted fortnightly with the participation of all the members of each local body of the Order was not only a mere recitation of rules of the code of conduct, but also considered to be an authorized legal institution on which the power was vested to impose the punishments to the offenders, according to the gravity of the rules violated by them. It is quite evidential that at the time of the Buddha Uposatha-kamma of the monks was a dynamic institution which ensured the purity and unity of the members of the Order. Not long before the passing away of the Buddha, A Brahmin called GopakaMoggallana raised a question in front of Ven. Ānanda as to how the Order can exists without the Master. The following was the answer given by Ven. Ānanda to that question of the Brahmin:
O Brahmin, the Exalted one has laid down Sikkhāpada and instituted the Patimokkha for the use of the Bhikkhũs. We are the Bhikkhũ for whom they were laid down and all of us who live by a single village unit assemble ourselves together on the day of Uposatha and whosoever amongst us knows it, i. e. the Pāimokkha we request him to recite it. While it is being recited if a bhikkhu has an offence or a transgression of which he is guilty then we deal with him according to the Dhamma and injunctions. It is not the monks who punish us but the Dhamma which punishes us[41]
This clearly shows us how the institution of Uposatha was instrumental for the proper maintenance of monastic discipline. Another ritualistic institution introduced by the Buddha which should be annually conducted after the rainy retreat is known as Pavārana. Here each monk has to make a request to the Sangha with whom he has spend the rains-retreat to declare his conduct as in the way that they have seen, heard or suspected to judge whether he is guilty of any transgression. This request should be made at the ritual of Pavārana by each member of the monks who spend rains-retreat together for their self-correction. This ritual can be done only after taking appropriate disciplinary action against the member if he is found guilty of any offence[42]. This clearly shows that not only the ritual of Patimokkha but also Pavārana was introduced by the Buddha with double purposes namely purity and unity. Legal authority entrusted on the institution of pavārana is further evident from the following statement appeared in the Vinaya:
“The monk who is charged with a pārājika offence if he were to admit that he is guilty of it has to be punished and then the Pavārana should performed by the monks[43]”
Though both the institutions referred to above are entrusted to follow the legal procedure against the members of the Oder who transgress the code of discipline, other matters pertaining to the Order which require the legal actions had been vested on other type of formal acts which should be performed according to the circumstances. Matters together with those arising from violation of the disciplinary rules which necessitate the legal prosecution (referred to as adhikarana) are considered to be four kinds. They are as follows:
Vivādādhikaraṇa, disputes arising within the Oder relating to the mattes of Dhamma and Vinaya
Anuvādādhikaraṇa, accusations of fellow members
Āpattādhikaraṇa, transgressions of the vinaya rules
Kiccādhikaraṇa, irregularities resulting from the failure of proper procedure in all monastic formal acts
Penalties and punishments which should be imposed against the members who become offenders under the disciplinary code should have to be decided in accordance with the gravity of the rules violated by them. All the rules amounting to 220 come under seven categories with reference to their severity. They are pārājika, sanghādisesa, aniyata, nissaggiya-pācittiya, pācittiya, pātidesaniya and sekhiyā. Punishments acknowledged for the violation of rules pertaining to the categories referred to above are respectively as follows: excommunication, Temporary suspension from the Order until the offender fulfills all the requirements which are necessary for the complete purification, confession with forfeiture, confession and confession with verbally acknowledging the offence.
The Buddha has introduced some other five kinds of act of punishments in addition to those referred to above for certain shortcomings of the members of the Order which are not directly related to the code of discipline. Acts of punishment are as follows:
Tajjaniyakamma - Act of Censure
Nissayakamma - Act of Subordination
Pabbājaniyakamma - Act of Banishment
Patisārāniyakamma - Act of Reconciliation
Ukkhepaniyakamma - Act of Suspension[44]
Matters dealt with above mentioned acts of punishment can be regarded as the blameworthy characters of the members of the monastic community. Except the Patisārāniyakamma, others are recommended for the reprehensible features of the members which can be categorized as follows:
- i. Making strife, quarrels, disputes, idle talk and raising legal questions in the Order
iii. Keeping company of householders, unbecoming association of householders
- i. Falling away from moral habit
iii. Holding the wrong views, falling away from right views
- i. Dispraising the Buddha
iii. Dispraising the Sangha.[45]
Reprehensible features of the behavior of the members of the Order which affect the life of the householders are subjected to the act of Tajjaniyakamma. Those features are enumerated as follows:
- i. Trying for non-profiting by the householders
iii. Trying for non-residence for the householders
iv. Reviling and abusing householders
v. Causing to break friendship of householders
B. i. Speaking dispraise of the Buddha to householders
ii. Speaking dispraise of the Dhamma to householders
iii. Speaking dispraise of the Sangha to householders
iv. Disparaging a householder with low thing
v. Non-fulfilling the good promise made to a householders[46].
The ways of solving the legal disputes arising from disciplinary actions within the monastic Order had also being formulated by the Buddha in order to correct the monastic indiscipline. The ways of the settlement of the legal disputes and conflicts referred to as Adhikarana-samatha are of seven kinds. They are 1. Sammukhā-vinaya : by a verdict in the presence of (the sangha, the parties, the Dhamma and the Vinaya), 2. Sati-vinaya : by a verdict of innocence. 3. Amũlha-vinaya: by a of past insanity, 4.Paţiññātakarana-vinaya : by a verdict acting in accordance with acknowledgement (by the accused), 5. Yebhuyyasikā: by the decision of the majority, 6. Tassapāpeyyasikā: by acting in accordance with the further misconducts of the accused and 7. Tiṇavatthāraka: by the covering up with grass (or covering over as with grass)[47].
All the formal activities (Sangha-kamma or Vinaya-kamma) including rituals as well as disciplinary actions of the Order are valid only if they are done in a properly formed committee or assembly of the monks. According the nature of the activity, members of such committees should have to be qualified with the necessary conditions as pointed out in the Vinaya. Assemblies where the formal activities can be performed in accordance with the matter in question are of fourfold. They are:
1.Catuvaggika - A committee which comprised of at least the quorum of four members is valid for all acts except Upasampadā, Pavārana and Abbhāna.
- Pancavaggika- A committee which comprised of at least the quorum of five members is valid for all acts except Upasampadā in the area where the monks abundantly available and Abbhāna.
- Vīsativaggika or with additional monks (atireka-vīsativaggika) – A committee which consisted of at least the quorum of twenty members is valid for all formal acts
The formal acts, according to the way of its performance, are considered as fourfold[48]:
- Ňatti-catuttha-kamma: Aformal act of the sangha in which a decision is proposed to the sangha in a motion and three announcements.
- Ňatti-dutiya-kamma: A formal act of the sangha in which a decision is proposed to the sangha in a motion and one announcement.
- Ňatti-kamma: A formal act of the sangha in which a decision is proposed to the sangha in a motion following a set wording.
- apalokana-kamma: A formal act of the sangha, in which a decision is proposed to the sangha in the announcer's own words.
A brief account of the Buddhist monastic Order given above reveals to us that the Buddha had made an enormous effort to make his monastic Order a self-sufficient, autonomous pure and united and stable organization which can work for the benefit of many for a long time
Conclusion
It is abundantly clear that the Buddha had not even a slightest intention to have a monastic Order controlled under rigid rules and restrictions to maintain his power as a gigantic religious leader. Attitude of the Buddha towards his disciples as shown above clearly points to the fact that he was led to establish an Order of monks by his great compassion towards the members of the order as well as the rest of the mankind. There is no doubt that the purity and unity which are the end result of the institution of the monks, as expected by the Buddha, necessarily stand for the benefit of the world.
.
[1]Vin.1.23ff.
[2]Nayidam sukaram agāram ajjhāvasatā ekantaparipunnam ekantaparisuddham sankhalikhitam brahmacariyam caritum.D. 1. 63.
[3]Jotiya Dhirasekera, Buddhist Monastic Discipline, Ministry of Higher Education Publication Series, Sri Lanka,1982. P. 39.
[4]Malalasekera G.P. Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, Munshiram Manoharlal , India, 1983, p.806.
[5] D.1. 113
[6]Harvey Peter, An Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, 1990. p.73
[7]The Long Discourses of the Buddha, p.431
[8]Vin, 111.21.
[9] Buddhist Monastic Discipline p.128
[10] D. II. 100.
[11]Udumbarika-sīhanāda-sutta. D.111.56
[12]Bhayabherava-sutta. M.1.16
[13]A. 1V. 351.
[14]A. 1V. 356.
[15]Anupada-sutta.M.111.29
[16]“Dhammadāyadā me bhikkhave bhavatha mā amisadāyādā.” Dhammadāyāda-sutta.M.1.12.
[17]“Gocare bhikkave caratha sake pettike visaye.”Cakkavatti-sīhanāda-sutta.D.111.58.
[18]Vin A.1.213.
[19].M.1.124.
[20] “Atha kho kassapagottassa bhikkhuno bhagavatā sikkhāpadapatisamyuttāya dhammiyākathāya bhikku sandassante samādapente samuttejente ahudeva akkhanti ahu appaccayo adhisallikhitevāyam samaṇoti”-A. 1.236
[21]Laţukikopama-sutta. Middle Length Saying.11.121
[22]Bhaddāli-sutta.M.1.445.
[23] M. I, Kakacũpama-sutta.124.
[24]The Connected Discourses of the Buddha.p.666.
[25]Buddhist Monastic Discipline,128.
[26]The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, P.667:.“Ovada kassapa bhikkhũ karohi kassapa bhikkũnam dhammikatham. Aham vā kassapa bhikkhũ ovadeyyam tvam vā. Aham vā bhikkhũnam dhammikatham kareyyām tvam vāti”(S.11.203, 205, 208).
[27]Anangana-sutta. M.1.40
[28] A.11. 156f
[29] A. 11. 194.
[30]S. Nidana-vagga. 24 (4)
[31]Sigālaka-sutta.D. III
[32] S. I. 191
[33]Anupada-sutta, M.111.25ff.
[34]A. v. 229.
[35]Mahā-parinibbāna-sutta.The Long Discourses of the Buddha. P.265-6
[36]The Connected Discourses of the Buddha.p.674
[37]Vin. 11.14; 111. 182
[38]Vin 1.287.
[39]. See Mahāvagga, Mahākkhandhaka
[40]. See Cullavagga, Bhikkhunikkhandhaka
[41] M. III. 10 (translated by Prof. JotiyaDhirasekera in Buddhist Manastic Discipline, P. 173)
[42]“ Yathādhammam kārāpetvā sanghena pavāretabbam”. Vin. I. 173
[43]“So ce bhikkhave cuditobhikkhu pārājikamāpannoti patijānāti nāsetvā sanghena pavāretabbam”. Vin. I. 173
[44] See Culla-vagga, Kammakkhandhaka
[45] Ibid
[46]Ibd
[47]Vin. II. 73f.-88f.
[48]See. Cullavagga, Samathakkhandhaka